Environmental History of the Southwest

Study Guide for Exam #2–Prehistoric Environments and Cultures

NOTE: The exam will be made up of multiple-choice, fill-in, true-false, and short-answer questions.

Early Humans of the SW

  1. When and where did humans first arrive in North America?
  2. What are some examples of Pleistocene megafauna?
  3. What happened to the North American megafauna at or near the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary?
  4. Discuss the pros and cons of the climate change and human impact hypotheses for the extinction of megafauna at the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary.
  5. Provide an example of a large mammal that survived this time period and discuss why it survived.
  6. Give an environmental argument for restoring to the Southwest an animal species that has been extirpated from the wild.

Pleistocene–Holocene Vegetation and Climate

  1. Describe the vegetation and climate for each of the following: Late Pleistocene, Early Holocene, Middle Holocene, and Late Holocene.
  2. Define and describe the use of alluvial stratigraphy in paleo-environmental studies in the Southwest.
  3. Define and describe the use of dendroclimatology in paleo-environmental studies of the Southwest.
  4. What defines climate of the SW over the past many thousands of years.

Anasazi: Chaco

  1. Describe the immigration of corn and other agriculture into the Southwest.
  2. What were the disadvantages and advantages of converting from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary farming lifestyle?
  3. Describe the Anasazi Chaco time line (human chronology) and unique characteristics (e.g., Great Kivas, etc.).
  4. Describe sensitivity analysis. Give an example from your own major field of study.
  5. Describe woodland resource usage at Chaco, both for structural beams and for fuelwood.
  6. When did the Chacoans leave Chaco Canyon and surroundings?
  7. Differentiate between environmental and cultural reasons for the Chaco abandonment.
  8. Where might they have gone?
  9. Are environments stable through time? Can humans alter environments?

Anasazi: Mesa Verde and Kayenta

  1. Describe the human chronology (time line) for the Mesa Verde and Kayenta Anasazi.
  2. How were the farming techniques for these communities different? Why?
  3. Compare and contrast drought vs. sediment loss for Mesa Verde and Kayenta.
  4. Where might they have gone?
  5. Are the Anasazi ancestors of the Navajo?

Hohokam

  1. Describe the human chronology for the Hohokam.
  2. Describe types of constructions unique to the Hohokam (e.g., ball courts, irrigation canals, etc.)
  3. Differentiate three farming methods used by the Hohokam.
  4. Describe the environmental zonation concept of the Hohokam.
  5. Describe soil salinization in desert areas.
  6. What might have caused Hohokam to abandon their sites? Discuss pros and cons of alternative hypotheses.
  7. Where might they have gone?

Mogollon and Sinagua

  1. Discuss the human chronology for the Mogollon cultures.
  2. Discuss some differences (agricultural and subsistence) between the Sinagua and Mogollon cultures.
  3. When and why did they abandon their sites?
  4. Discuss environmental differences between Northern and Southern Sinagua cultures.
  5. How was the eruption of Sunset Crater dated?
  6. How did the Sunset Crater eruption affect the Northern Sinagua people living nearby?
  7. What "modern homework" would you suggest to better understand effects of volcanic eruptions on human society.
  8. Discuss the environmental advantages of living in an ecotone.
  9. Detail passive solar heating-cooling concepts at Montezuma Castle. Bring numbers.

Transition Period

  1. Detail geographical traits of Pecos that made it a "crossroads" site.
  2. Describe the Law of Superposition as a dating tool.
  3. Describe lifeways of the people of Pecos.
  4. Pueblo vs. Basketmaker.
  5. What was the problem with dating at Paquimé, and how was it resolved?
  6. Compare and contrast lifeways of Paquimé with other cultural centers of the SW?
  7. How was Paquimé a "crossroads" site?

Spanish-Mexican Period

  1. Discuss the use of historical documents in researching past events.
  2. Define underlying principles of paleoenvironmental reconstruction that are held in common by (a) analysis of historical documents and (b) analysis of natural archives.
  3. What were dates of major events of early Spanish contact in the Southwest?
  4. What environmental innovations did Europeans bring to the Southwest from the Old World?
  5. What environmental innovations did Europeans learn from Native Americans?
  6. Why was it that Europeans effectively dominated Native Americans at their first contact in the New World?

Navajo-Apache

  1. Discuss the origin and timing of early Athapaskans in the Southwest.
  2. What are the basics of glottochronology and how has it been applied to these SW cultures.
  3. Compare fundamentals of glottochronology versus C14 as dating techniques.
  4. Are Navajo direct descendants of Anasazi? Are Western Apache direct descendants of Mogollon?
  5. Discuss the hypothesis that Navajo pueblitos were built for defensive purposes after Spanish reconquest of New Mexico.
  6. What dating technique was used to date Navajo hogans in the Southwest?
  7. List environmental reasons for the failure of the Navajo Bosque Redondo internment.
  8. Discuss the concept of carrying capacity with respect to Navajo sheep grazing.
  9. Describe notable features of the environmental lifeways of the Apache (i.e., hunting, farming, gathering).
  10. How might Apache farming be a model for late-Archaic adoption of agriculture.
  11. Describe peeled trees and how they have been studied.
  12. Discuss the advantages of minimalist housing used by early Western Apache.

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